Ask Joe Mechanic: Mecum Auction

This week, I am putting my turbocharging and supercharging series on hold again due to the significant importance of an automotive event that took place in Harrisburg this past weekend. The first Mecum Harrisburg collector car auction took place at the Harrisburg Farm Show Arena and I had the privilege of full access media credentials for the event. I attended a pre-auction event on Wednesday afternoon and evening. During this time I had a chance to talk with some of the Mecum personnel and view the vehicles that had arrived without fighting the crowd. This also gave me an opportunity took take a lot of photographs without difficulty. I will say that over the course of my time there, I took over 575 photographs.

            This was the first national and world-recognized auction company to come to the northeastern United States to hold a collector car auction. Yes, we have all attended events and auctions at Carlisle, Hershey, Atlantic City, Wildwood and others, but none of them compare to the size and quality of the vehicles that I witnessed at this event. I spent three days in Harrisburg, and I’ll tell you that if I had the money, I would have bought quite a number of vehicles. In fact, I need to retract a statement that I recently made in the Meet Joe Mechanic article. I stated that it is impossible for a car person to pick just one vehicle that he would like to have, but I could narrow it down to three or four. That is no longer true. Upon returning home and sitting down to work on this article, I wanted to pick twelve cars that I would have bought had I a seven or eight figure bank account (no decimal places), but I found that I had difficulty getting the list down to twenty.

            Those twenty vehicles I picked are featured in a special section of this week’s center glossy pages called Joe’s Picks with a short description and why I chose them. Some of these vehicles were sold, some were not, and that was only because I didn’t have money! Seriously, look through the photos and compare them with what your choices would be. I have featured about thirty or forty cars from each day, along with the price that they sold for.

Have fun and enjoy!  There is also a short article called Reflections on the First Mecum Harrisburg Auction in which I give some of my own observations.  Also featured is some information that I received in a post auction interview with a gentleman from Mecum Auctions Inc.

Ask Joe Mechanic: Turbocharging Part II

We discussed in part 1 that turbocharging lately has become very advanced due to the governmental requirements to achieve higher gas mileage ratings. We now are finding turbochargers installed on V-6 engines which either necessitates some special designing to use only one turbo, or the use of twin-turbochargers.  With twin turbos on a V-6 engine, each manifold has a turbocharger installed on it and both feed into a single plenum on the intake manifold. This system is also used on boxer or flat engines such as Subaru uses. 

There are also manufacturers who are using twin-turbochargers in series to create higher boost at higher road speed, but eliminate turbo lag at low speeds. To accomplish this, a small turbo charger is installed first which will spool up quickly at low speeds. Then, there are specially designed piping leading to a second larger turbocharger for road speed. This type system is most commonly used on diesel engines, but some exotic car builders also use it.

            Another design is the twin-scroll turbocharger where there are two exhaust inlets in one turbocharger, with a smaller angled one designed for quick response and a second less angled larger inlet for peak performance. Usually, these twin turbos will pair cylinders 1 and 4 along with pairing 2 and 3 to more efficiently burn the fuel mixture and to reduce engine manifold temperatures. It will also greatly reduce turbo lag.

            Variable geometry or variable nozzle turbos adjust the amount of air entering the intake side of the turbocharger with a set of adjustable vanes. This will cause the turbocharger to operate at optimum pressure and efficiency based on the demand placed on it. There is an actuator which is computer controlled to move the vanes to increase or decrease airflow. By doing so, it will maintain the correct exhaust velocity throughout the engine’s power range and limit turbo lag.

            The center housing/hub rotating assembly (CHRA) is the most highly engineered and probably the most important part of the turbocharger. This section contains the lubrication, cooling and the turbine impellers and their mounting. The housing has ports for engine coolant to run throughout, and also oil passages to the bearing system. The bearings in most automotive turbochargers are either high-speed ball bearings or thrust bearings. In older turbochargers, the oil would sometimes become so hot that it would actually harden around the bearing, called coking, and this would cause the turbo to fail. This risk has been greatly reduced with better bearings, cooling designs and synthetic oils, which are more resistant to heat.

            One of the technologies that has been most effective in improving turbocharger performance is intercooling. The process of intercooling is basically forcing the air from the intake side of the turbo through a radiator in an effort to cool it as much as possible. The reason for this is that hot air is less dense than cool air and that loss of density means loss of power. When you force air through the turbocharger it builds up heat, plus it absorbs some from heat transfer from the exhaust side, so by going through the intercooler, it gives the air a chance to cool down before entering the engine.

            Another application that is used often by performance tuners is water injection where a spray of water is injected into the air charge to further cool it. A variation of this is to actually alter the air/fuel ratio by richening the mixture. The extra fuel does not actually get burned, but by turning the fuel from a liquid to a gas, it absorbs heat.

            The final add on feature to a turbocharger is a waste-gate. The waste-gate’s purpose is to regulate the pressure built in the turbocharger by regulating the amount of exhaust gas passing through the turbo. A pressure sensor sensing that the engine is reaching optimum boost pressure does this. The sensor sends a signal to the engine computer, which in turn sends a signal to a vacuum valve that opens and pulls vacuum, opening the waste-gate and allowing the exhaust gas to bypass the turbo.

Some information for this post was sourced from www.wikipedia.org.

You Auto Know: Wordsearch Fun!

What's not to love about a wordsearch?  Especially one that it automotive-themed!  We've recently introduced puzzles into the pages of our publication.  In case you missed last week's puzzle, enjoy!
 

Let us know if you need the solution key!

Ask Joe Mechanic - CNG/LNG/LPG Vehicles

            Compressed natural gas and Propane gas are two technologies that have been well tested and with the reduction of cost of natural gas, seems to be a great alternative fuel source. A natural gas vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle that uses compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a cleaner alternative to other fossil fuels. Natural gas vehicles should not be confused with vehicles powered by propane (LPG), which is a fuel with a fundamentally different composition.

            As of 2009, the U.S. had a fleet of 114,270 compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles, mostly buses; 147,030 vehicles running on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); and 3,176 vehicles liquefied natural gas (LNG). Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by 2011.

            Existing gasoline-powered vehicles may be converted to run on CNG or LNG, and can be dedicated (running only on natural gas) or bi-fuel (running on either gasoline or natural gas. Diesel engines for heavy trucks and busses can also be converted and can be dedicated with the addition of new heads containing spark ignition systems, or can be run on a blend of diesel and natural gas, with the primary fuel being natural gas and a small amount of diesel fuel being used as an ignition source. An increasing number of vehicles worldwide are being manufactured to run on CNG. Until recently, the Honda Civic GX was the only NGV commercially available in the US market., however now Ford, GM and Ram have bi-fuel offerings in their vehicle lineup. Fords approach is to offer a bi-fuel prep kit as a factory option, and then have the customer choose an authorized partner to install the natural gas equipment.

Choosing GM's bi-fuel option sends the HD pickups with the 6.0L gasoline engine to IMPCO in Indiana to upfit the vehicle to run on CNG. Ram currently is the only pickup truck manufacturer with a truly factory-installed bi-fuel system available in the U.S. market. Outside the U.S. GM do Brazil introduced the MultiPower engine in August 2004 which was capable of using CNG, alcohol and gasoline (E20-E25 blend) as fuel, and it was used in the Chevrolet Astra 2.0 model 2005, aimed at the taxi market. In 2006 the Brazilian subsidiary of FIAT introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run on natural gas (CNG); 100 percent ethanol (E100); E20 to E25 gasoline blend, Brazil's mandatory gasoline; and pure gasoline, though no longer available in Brazil it is used in neighboring countries.

             NGV filling stations can be located anywhere that natural gas lines exist. Compressors (CNG) or liquifaction plants (LNG) are usually built on large scale but with CNG small home refueling stations are possible. A company called FuelMaker pioneered such a system called Phill Home Refueling Appliance (known as "Phill"), which they developed in partnership with Honda for the American GX model. Phill is now manufactured and sold by BRC FuelMaker, a division of Fuel Systems Solutions, Inc.

           

 CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or wastewater, which doesn't increase the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere.

            Despite its advantages, the use of natural gas vehicles faces several limitations, including fuel storage and infrastructure available for delivery and distribution at fueling stations. CNG must be stored in high-pressure cylinders (3000psi to 3600psi operation pressure), and LNG must be stored in cryogenic cylinders (-260F to -200F). These cylinders take up more space than gasoline or diesel tanks that can be molded in intricate shapes to store more fuel and use less on-vehicle space. CNG tanks are usually located in the vehicle's trunk or pickup bed, reducing the space available for other cargo. This problem can be solved by installing the tanks under the body of the vehicle, or on the roof (typical for busses), leaving cargo areas free. As with other alternative fuels, other barriers for widespread use of NGVs are natural gas distribution to and at fueling stations as well as the low number of CNG and LNG stations.

             Though LNG and CNG are both considered NGVs, the technologies are vastly different. Refueling equipment, fuel cost, pumps, tanks, hazards, capital costs are all different. One thing they share is that due to engines made for gasoline, computer controlled valves to control fuel mixtures are required for both of them, often being proprietary and specific to the manufacturer. The on-engine technology for fuel metering is the same for LNG and CNG.

            CNG, or compressed natural gas, is stored at high pressure, 3,000 to 3,600 pounds per square inch (21 to 25 MPa). The required tank is more massive and costly than a conventional fuel tank. Refueling stations are more expensive to operate than LNG stations because of the energy required for compression. Time to fill a CNG tank varies greatly depending on the station. Home refuelers typically fill at about 0.4 GGE/hr. "Fast-fill" stations may be able to refill a 10 GGE tank in 5–10 minutes. Also, because of the lower energy density, the range on CNG is limited by comparison to LNG.

            LNG, or liquified natural gas, is natural gas that has been cooled to a point that it is a cryogenic liquid. In its liquid state, it is still more than 2 times as dense as CNG. LNG is dispensed from bulk storage tanks at LNG fuel stations at rates exceeding 20 GGE/min. Because of its cryogenic nature, it is stored in specially designed insulated tanks. Generally speaking, these tanks operate at fairly low pressures (about 70-150 psi) when compared to CNG. A vaporizer is mounted in the fuel system that turns the LNG into a gas (which may simply be considered low pressure CNG).

            LNG – and especially CNG – tends to corrode and wear the parts of an engine less rapidly than gasoline. Thus it's quite common to find diesel engine NGVs with high mileages (over 500,000 miles). Emissions are cleaner, with lower emissions of carbon and lower particulate emissions per equivalent distance traveled. There is generally less wasted fuel. CNG-powered vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles.

            Autogas, also known as LPG, has different chemical composition, but still petroleum based gas, has a number of inherent advantages and disadvantages, as well as noninherent ones. The inherent advantage of autogas over CNG is that it requires far less compression (20% of CNG cost), is denser as its a liquid at room temperature, and thus far cheaper tanks (consumer) and fuel compressors (provider) than CNG. As compared to LNG, it requires no chilling (and thus less energy), or problems associated with extreme cold such as frostbite. Like NGV, it also has advantages over gasoline and diesel in cleaner emissions, along with less wear on engines over gasoline. The major drawback of LPG is its safety, the fuel is heavier than air, which causes it to collect in a low spot in the event of a leak, making it far more hazardous to use, as more care is needed.

            Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane (C3H8), primarily butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane and butane, depending on the season — in winter more propane, in summer more butane In the United States, primarily only two grades of LPG are sold, commercial propane and HD-5. The Gas Processors Association (GPA) and the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) publish these specifications. Propane/butane blends are also listed in these specifications. Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG, and is utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The international standard is EN 589. In the United States, tetrahydrothiophene (thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants, although neither is currently being utilized.

           

LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. Dr. Walter Snelling first produced it in 1910, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution. LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline). However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower (about 0.5—0.58, compared to 0.71—0.77 for gasoline).

           

In places like the US, Thailand, and India, there are five to ten times more stations thus making the fuel more accessible than NGV stations. Other countries like Poland, South Korea, and Turkey, LPG stations and autos are widespread while NGVs are not. In addition, in some countries such as Thailand, the retail LPG fuel is considerably cheaper in cost.        Though ANG (adsorbed natural gas) has not yet been used in either providing neither stations nor consumer storage tanks, its low compression (500psi vs 3600 psi) has the potential to drive down costs of NGV infrastructure and vehicle tanks.

 

The primary component of natural gas is methane (CH₄), the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon molecule. It may also contain heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as ethane (C₂H₆), propane (C₃H₈) and butane (C₄H₁₀), as well as other gases, in varying amounts. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is a common contaminant, which must be removed prior to most uses. Combustion of one cubic meter yields 38 MJ (10.6 kWh). Natural gas has the highest energy/carbon ratio of any fossil fuel, and thus produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy.

            The major difficulty in the use of natural gas is transportation. Natural gas pipelines are economical and common on land and across medium-length stretches of water (like Langeled, Interconnector and Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline), but are impractical across large oceans. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanker ships, railway tankers, and tank trucks are also used.

            CNG is typically stored in steel or composite containers at high pressure (3000 to 4000 psi, or 205 to 275 bar). These containers are not typically temperature controlled, but are allowed to stay at local ambient temperature. There are many standards for CNG cylinders; the most popular one is ISO 11439. For North America the standard is ANSI NGV-2.

           

LNG storage pressures are typically around 50-150 psi, or 3 to 10 bar. At atmospheric pressure, LNG is at a temperature of -260°F (-162°C), however, in a vehicle tank under pressure the temperature is slightly higher (see saturated fluid). Storage temperatures may vary due to varying composition and storage pressure. LNG is far denser than even the highly compressed state of CNG. As a consequence of the low temperatures, vacuum insulated storage tanks typically made of stainless steel are used to hold LNG.

           

CNG can be stored at lower pressure in a form known as an ANG (Adsorbed Natural Gas) tank at 35 bar (500 psi, the pressure of gas in natural gas pipelines) in various sponge like materials, such as activated carbon and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). The fuel is stored at similar or greater energy density than CNG. This means that vehicles can be refueled from the natural gas network without extra gas compression; the fuel tanks can be slimmed down and made of lighter, less strong materials.

           

As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at normal temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurized steel vessels. They are typically filled to between 80 percent and 85 percent of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure, and temperature, but is typically around 250:1. The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapor pressure, likewise varies depending on composition and temperature; for example, it is approximately 220 kilopascals (32 psi) for pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and approximately 2.2 megapascals (320 psi) for pure propane at 55 °C (131 °F). LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. There are two main dangers from this. The first is a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive limits and there is an ignition source. The second is suffocation due to LPG displacing air, causing a decrease in oxygen concentration. In addition, an odorant is mixed with LPG used for fuel purposes so that leaks can be detected more easily.

           

Conversion kits for gasoline or diesel to LNG/CNG are available in many countries, along with the labor to install them. However, the range of prices and quality of conversion vary enormously. Recently, regulations involving certification of installations in USA has been loosened to include certified private companies, those same kit installations for CNG have fallen to the $6,000+ range (depending on type of vehicle).

           

With the recent increase in natural gas production due to widespread use of fracking technology, many countries, including the United States and Canada, now can be self-sufficient. Canada is a substantial net exporter of natural gas, though the United States still has a net import of natural gas. Natural gas prices have decreased dramatically in the past few years and are likely to decrease further as additional production comes on line. However, the EIA predicts that natural gas prices will start increasing in a few years as the most profitable natural gas reserves are used up. Natural gas prices have decreased from $13 per mmbtu (USD) in 2008 to $3 per mmbtu (USD) in 2012. It is likely therefore that natural gas-powered vehicles will be increasingly cheaper to run relative to gasoline-powered vehicles. The issue is how to finance the purchase and installation of conversion kits. Some support may be available through the Department of Energy. Private initiatives, which essentially lease the conversion equipment in exchange for slightly higher natural gas refueling, can be self-financing and offer considerable advantages to liquidity strapped consumers.

           

Natural Gas has been used as a motor fuel in Canada for over 20 years.^{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_vehicle - cite_note-36} With assistance from federal and provincial research programs, demonstration projects, and NGV market deployment programs during the 1980s and 1990s, the population of light-duty NGVs grew to over 35,000 by the early 1990s. This assistance resulted in a significant adoption of natural gas transit buses as well. The NGV market started to decline after 1995, eventually reaching today’s vehicle population of about 12,000.

            This figure includes 150 urban transit buses, 45 school buses, 9,450 light-duty cars and trucks, and 2,400 forklifts and ice-resurfacers. The total fuel use in all NGV markets in Canada was 1.9 petajoules (PJs) in 2007 (or 54.6 million litres of gasoline litres equivalent), down from 2.6 PJs in 1997. Public CNG refueling stations have declined in quantity from 134 in 1997 to 72 today. There are 22 in British Columbia, 12 in Alberta, 10 in Saskatchewan, 27 in Ontario, and 1 in Québec. There are only 12 private fleet stations.

            As of December 2009, the U.S. had a fleet of 114,270 compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles, 147,030 vehicles running on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and 3,176 vehicles running on liquefied natural gas (LNG). The NGV fleet is made up mostly of transit buses but there are also some government fleet cars and vans, as well as increasing number of corporate trucks replacing diesel versions, most notably Waste Management, Inc and UPS trucks. As of 12-Dec-2013 Waste Management has a fleet of 2000 CNG Collection trucks; as of 12-Dec-2013 UPS has 2700 alternative fuel vehicles. As of February 2011, there were 873 CNG refueling sites, 2,589 LPG sites, and 40 LNG sites, led by California with 215 CNG refueling stations in operation, 228 LPG sites and 32 LNG sites. The number of refueling stations includes both public and private sites, and not all are available to the public. As of December 2010, the U.S. ranked 6th in the world in terms of number of NGV stations.

            When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as autogas or auto propane. In some countries, it has been used since the 1940s as a petrol alternative for spark ignition engines. In some countries, there are additives in the liquid that extend engine life and the ratio of butane to propane is kept quite precise in fuel LPG. Two recent studies have examined LPG-fuel-oil fuel mixes and found that smoke emissions and fuel consumption are reduced but hydrocarbon emissions are increased. The studies were split on CO emissions, with one finding significant increases, and the other finding slight increases at low engine load but a considerable decrease at high engine load. Its advantage is that it is non-toxic, non-corrosive and free of tetraethyllead or any additives, and has a high octane rating (102-108 RON depending on local specifications). It burns cleanlier than petrol or fuel oil and is especially free of the particulates from the latter.

           

            LPG has a lower energy density than either petrol or fuel oil, so the equivalent fuel consumption is higher. Many governments impose less tax on LPG than on petrol or fuel oil, which helps offset the greater consumption of LPG than of petrol or fuel oil. However, in many European countries this tax break is often compensated by a much higher annual road tax on cars using LPG than on cars using petrol or fuel oil. Propane is the third most widely used motor fuel in the world. 2008 estimates are that over 13 million vehicles are fueled by propane gas worldwide. Over 20 million tons (over 7 billion US gallons) are used annually as a vehicle fuel.

            Not all automobile engines are suitable for use with LPG as a fuel. LPG provides less upper cylinder lubrication than petrol or diesel, so LPG-fueled engines are more prone to valve wear if they are not suitably modified. Many modern common rail diesel engines respond well to LPG use as a supplementary fuel. This is where LPG is used as fuel as well as diesel. Systems are now available that integrate with OEM engine management systems.

            The recent increases in natural gas production in the United States, now number one in the world in CNG production, makes looking at this technology extremely attractive. Commercial fleets are increasingly looking at conversion to natural gas, with the biggest movement now being explored is in the commercial trucking industry. With tighter regulations on commercial diesel emissions, CNG appears to be the answer being explored the most and expect to see major changes over the next few years. If this conversion is successful, which appears highly likely, heavy truck emissions would be cut significantly.

            Next week we will wrap up the discussion on alternative fuels. Some information for this article obtained from Wikipedia.org.

This week’s recalls:

1,176,407 008-2013 Buick Enclave and GMC Acadia and 2009-2013 Chevrolet Traverse and 2008-2010 Saturn Outlook vehicles.
In the affected vehicles, increased resistance in the driver and passenger seat mounted side impact air bag (SIAB) wiring harnesses may result in the SIAB and seat belt pretensioners not deploying in the event of a crash. Failure of the side impact air bags and seat belt pretensioners to deploy in a crash increases the risk of injury to the driver and front seat occupant.

303,013 009-2014 Chevrolet Express and GMC Savana vans manufactured January 27, 2009, through March 7, 2014.
With a gross vehicle weight rating of 10,000 pounds and less and equipped with front passenger air bags. In the affected vehicles, during a frontal impact below the air bag deployment threshold, if an unbelted front passenger's head hits the instrument panel above where the passenger air bag is located, the panel may not sufficiently absorb the impact. As such, these vehicles fail to meet the requirements of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard number 201, "Occupant Protection in Interior Impact." In the event of a crash below the air bag deployment threshold, an unbelted front passenger seat occupant has an increased risk of injury.

63,903 2013-2014 Cadillac XTS vehicles manufactured February 14, 2012, through March 7, 2014.
In the affected vehicles, a cavity plug on the brake booster pump connector may dislodge allowing corrosion of the brake booster pump relay connector. The corrosion of the brake booster pump relay connector may cause a resistive short and melt the connector, increasing the risk of a fire.

886,815 Honda is recalling certain 2005-2010 Honda Odyssey vehicles manufactured June 23, 2004, through September 4, 2010.
In the affected vehicles, the fuel pump strainer cover may deteriorate allowing fuel to leak out. A fuel leak increases the risk of a fire.

18,092 2014 Fiat 500L vehicles manufactured April 5, 2013, through January 22, 2014.

In certain temperatures, moving the transmission shift lever may have a delayed effect or no effect on selecting a transmission gear. If there is no effect, the vehicle might not shift out of the Park position. If there is a delayed effect, the vehicle may move in an unintended or unexpected direction, increasing the risk of a crash.

18,690 2012-2013 Dodge Durango and Jeep Grand Cherokee vehicles manufactured October 11, 2011, through October 1, 2012.
Under certain braking events, the Ready Alert Braking System (RAB) may result in the driver experiencing a hard brake pedal feel. If the driver experiences a hard brake pedal, the driver may not push the pedal as intended, lengthening the distance needed to stop the vehicle and increasing the risk of a crash.

If you own one of these affected vehicles, contact your dealer or the manufacturer for further instructions.

                                   

Ask Joe Mechanic - Flex Fuel Vehicles (Part 2)

The E85 blend is used in gasoline engines modified to accept such higher concentrations of ethanol, and the fuel injection is regulated through a dedicated sensor, which automatically detects the amount of ethanol in the fuel, allowing to adjust both fuel injection and spark timing accordingly to the actual blend available in the vehicle's tank. Because ethanol contains close to 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline.

             The American E85 flex-fuel vehicle was developed to run on any mixture of unleaded gasoline and ethanol, anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol by volume. Both fuels are mixed in the same tank, and E85 is sold already blended. In order to reduce ethanol evaporative emissions and to avoid problems starting the engine during cold weather, the maximum blend of ethanol was set to 85%. There is also a seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 (called winter E85 blend) in very cold regions, where temperatures fall below 0 °C (32 °F) during the winter. In Wyoming for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May.

             E85 flex-fuel vehicles are becoming increasingly common in the Midwest, where corn is a major crop and is the primary feedstock for ethanol fuel production. Regional retail E85 prices vary widely across the US, with more favorable prices in the Midwest region, where most corn is grown and ethanol produced. Depending of the vehicle capabilities, the break-even price of E85 has to be between 25 and 30% lower than gasoline.

            As ethanol FFVs became commercially available during the late 1990s, the common use of the term "flexible-fuel vehicle" became synonymous with ethanol FFVs. In the United States flex-fuel vehicles are also known as "E85 vehicles". In Brazil, the FFVs are popularly known as "total flex" or simply "flex" cars. In Europe, FFVs are also known as "flexifuel" vehicles. Automakers, particularly in Brazil and the European market, use badging in their FFV models with the some variant of the word "flex", such as Volvo Flexifuel, or Volkswagen Total Flex, or Chevrolet FlexPower or Renault Hi-Flex, and Ford sells its Focus model in Europe as Flexifuel and as Flex in Brazil. In the US, only since 2008 FFV models feature a yellow gas cap with the label "E85/Gasoline" written on the top of the cap to differentiate E85s from gasoline only models.

             Flexible-fuel vehicles (FFVs) are based on dual-fuel systems that supply both fuels into the combustion chamber at the same time in various calibrated proportions. The most common fuels used by FFVs today are unleaded gasoline and ethanol fuel. Ethanol FFVs can run on pure gasoline, pure ethanol (E100) or any combination of both. Methanol has also been blended with gasoline in flex-fuel vehicles known as M85 FFVs, but their use has been limited mainly to demonstration projects and small government fleets, particularly in California.

             The term flexible-fuel vehicle is sometimes used to include other alternative fuel vehicles that can run with compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG; also known as autogas), or hydrogen. However, all these vehicles actually are bi-fuel and not flexible-fuel vehicles, because they have engines that store the other fuel in a separate tank, and the engine runs on one fuel at a time. Bi-fuel vehicles have the capability to switch back and forth from gasoline to the other fuel, manually or automatically. The most common available fuel in the market for bi-fuel cars is natural gas (CNG), and by 2008 there were 9,6 million natural gas vehicles, led by Pakistan (2.0 million), Argentina (1.7 million), and Brazil (1.6 million). Natural gas vehicles are a popular choice as taxicabs in the main cities of Argentina and Brazil. Normally, standard gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops, which involve installing the gas cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics.

            Multifuel vehicles are capable of operating with more than two fuels. In 2004 GM do Brasil introduced the Chevrolet Astra 2.0 with a "MultiPower" engine built on flex fuel technology developed by Bosch of Brazil, and capable of using CNG, ethanol and gasoline (E20-E25 blend) as fuel. This automobile was aimed at the taxicab market and the switch among fuels is done manually. In 2006 Fiat introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run as a flex-fuel on 100% ethanol (E100); or on E-20 to E25, Brazil's normal ethanol gasoline blend; on pure gasoline (though no longer available in Brazil since 1993, it is still used in neighboring countries); or just on natural gas. The Siena Tetrafuel was engineered to switch from any gasoline-ethanol blend to CNG automatically, depending on the power required by road conditions. Another existing option is to retrofit an ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tank and the corresponding injection system. This option is popular among taxicab owners in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, allowing users to choose among three fuels (E25, E100 and CNG) according to current market prices at the pump. Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as "tri-fuel" cars.

            Flex-fuel hybrid electric and flex-fuel plug-in hybrid are two types of hybrid vehicles built with a combustion engine capable of running on gasoline, E-85, or E-100 to help drive the wheels in conjunction with the electric engine or to recharge the battery pack that powers the electric engine. In 2007 Ford produced 20 demonstration Escape Hybrid E85s for real-world testing in fleets in the U.S. Also as a demonstration project, Ford delivered in 2008 the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), a Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid, which runs on gasoline or E85. GM announced that the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, launched in the U.S. in late 2010, would be the first commercially available flex-fuel plug-in capable of adapting the propulsion to several world markets such as the U.S., Brazil or Sweden, as the combustion engine can be adapted to run on E85, E100 or diesel respectively. The Volt was initially expected to be flex-fuel-capable in 2013.^] Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar at the 2010 Paris Motor Show. The CityCar is a plug-in hybrid concept car designed for flex-fuel operation on ethanol, or methanol as well as regular gasoline.

            A 2005 survey found that 68 percent of American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex. This was because the exteriors of flex and non-flex vehicles look exactly the same; there is no sale price difference between them; the lack of consumers' awareness about E85s; and also the initial decision of American automakers of not putting any kind of exterior labeling, so buyers could be aware they are purchasing an E85 vehicle. Since 2008, all new FFV models in the US feature a bright yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities and proper flex-fuel badging.

            Some critics have argued that American automakers have been producing E85 flex models motivated by a loophole in the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) requirements, that allows for a fuel economy credit for every flex-fuel vehicle sold, whether or not in practice these vehicles are fueled with E85. This loophole might allow the car industry to meet the CAFE targets in fuel economy just by spending between US$100 and US$200 that it cost to turn a conventional vehicle into a flex-fuel, without investing in new technology to improve fuel economy, and saving them the potential fines for not achieving that standard in a given model year. The CAFE standards proposed in 2011 for the period 2017-2025 will allow flexible-fuel vehicles to receive extra credit but only when the carmakers present data proving how much E85 such vehicles have actually consumed.

            A major restriction hampering sales of E85 flex vehicles, or fueling with E85, is the limited infrastructure available to sell E85 to the public. As of May 2011, there were only 2,749 gasoline fueling stations selling E85 to the public in the entire US, with a great concentration of E85 stations in the Corn Belt states. The main constraint for a more rapid expansion of E85 availability is that it requires dedicated storage tanks at filling stations, at an estimated cost of US$60,000 for each dedicated ethanol tank. The Obama Administration set the goal of installing 10,000 blender pumps nationwide until 2015, and to support this target the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) issued a rule in May 2011 to include flexible fuel pumps in the Rural Energy for America Program (REAP). This ruling will provide financial assistance to fuel station owners to install E85 and blender pumps.

            General Motors announced that the new Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, launched in the United States market in December 2010, will be flex-fuel-capable in 2013. General Motors do Brasil announced that it will import from five to ten Volts to Brazil during the first semester of 2011 as part of a demonstration and also to lobby the federal government to enact financial incentives for green cars. If successful, GM would adapt the Volt to operate on ethanol fuel, as most new cars sold in Brazil are flex-fuel.

             In 2008, Chrysler, General Motors, and Ford pledged to manufacture 50 percent of their entire vehicle line as flexible fuel in model year 2012, if enough fueling infrastructure develops. The Open Fuel Standard Act (OFS), introduced to Congress in May 2011, is intended to promote a massive adoption of flex-fuel vehicles capable of running on ethanol or methanol. The bill requires that 50 percent of automobiles made in 2014, 80 percent in 2016, and 95 percent in 2017, would be manufactured and warranted to operate on non-petroleum-based fuels, which includes existing technologies such as flex-fuel, natural gas, hydrogen, biodiesel, plug-in electric and fuel cell.

             

Comparison of key characteristics among the leading ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle markets
Characteristic	Brazil	Sweden	U.S.	Units/comments
Type of flexible-fuel vehicle (fuel used)[12][15]	E20 to E100	E85	E85	Brazil's mandatory blend is E20-E25. Winter E85 is actually E70 in the US and E75 in Sweden.
Main feedstock used for ethanol consumption[12][105]	Sugar cane	80% imported	Maize	In 2007, most Swedish ethanol was imported, with a high share from Brazil.[105][109]
Total flex-fuel vehicles produced/sold[2][3][4][6]	23.0 million	229,400	10 million(1)	Brazil as of October 2013, Sweden sales as of September 2013 and .U.S. fleet on the road as of December 2011. The Brazilian fleet includes 3.0 million flex fuel motorcycles.[3] USDOE estimates that in 2009 only 504,297 flex-fuel vehicles were regularly fueled with E85 in the US.[141]
Share of flex-fuel vehicles as % of total registered	22.0%	4.7%	4.0%	Brazil's fleet is 64.8 mi (2010),[183] Sweden fleet is 4.8 mi (2008),[184] and US fleet is 248.5 mi (2009).[141]
Ethanol fueling stations in the country[114][185][186]	35,017	1,723	2,757	Brazil for December 2007, the US and Sweden as of August 2011.
Ethanol filling stations as % of total[95][105][110][141][186]	100%	30%	1.7%	As % of total fueling gas stations in the country.
Ethanol fueling stations per million inhabitants	184.2	130.4	6.5	See List of countries by population. Brazil and US as of 2008-09-12, and Sweden as of 2008-06-30.
Retail price of E85 or E100 (local currency/unit)	R$ 1.259/L	SEK 8.79/L	US$ 2.60/gal	Selected regions:(2)São Paulo, June 2008,[187] Sweden, January 2008,[124] and Minnesota, August 2008.[188]
Retail price of gasoline or E25. (local currency/unit)	R$ 2.385/L	SEK 11.99/L	US$ 3.70/gal	Prices in São Paulo (E25), June 2008,[187] Sweden, January 2008,[124] and Minnesota, August 2008.[188]
Price economy ethanol/gasoline price as %	47.2%(2)(3)	26.7%(3)	29.7%(2)(3)	São Paulo, June 2008, Sweden January 2008, and Minnesota, August 2008.
Notes: (1)The effective number of E85 flex vehicles in US roads actually using ethanol fuel is lower than shown, as a survey have shown than 68% of E85 owners are not aware they own a flex-fuel vehicle.[12] A 2007 national survey found that only 5% of drivers actually use biofuels.[189] (2) Regional prices vary widely in Brazil and the US. The states chosen reflect some of the lowest retail prices for ethanol, as both São Paulo and Minnesota are main growers of feedstock and producers of ethanol, hence, the comparison presented is one of the most favorable for ethanol/gasoline price ratios. For example, US average spread was 16.9% in August 2008, and it varied from 35% in Indiana to 3% in Utah.[188] See more US price comparisons for most states at e85prices.com, and annual fuel costs for 2008 FFV US models at www.fueleconomy.gov. (3) Brazilian gasoline is heavily taxed (~54%),[190] US ethanol production was subsidized (a US$ 0.51/gal federal tax credit) until December 2011,[95] and Swedish E85 is exempt of CO2 and energy taxes until 2009 (~30% price reduction).[109][124]

Certain information for this article was sourced from Wikipedia.org

Ask Joe Mechanic - Solar Powered Vehicles (Part 2)

It is also possible to use solar panels to extend the range of a hybrid or electric car, as incorporated in the Fisker Karma, available as an option on the Chevy Volt, on the hood and roof of "Destiny 2000" modifications of Pontiac Fieros, Italdesign Quaranta, Free Drive EV Solar Bug, and numerous other electric vehicles, both concept and production. In May 2007, a partnership of Canadian companies led by Hymotion added PV cells to a Toyota Prius to extend the range. SEV claims 20 miles per day from their combined 215W module mounted on the car roof and an additional 3kWh battery.

On 9 June 2008, the German and French Presidents announced a plan to offer a cedit of 6-8g/km of CO₂ emissions for cars fitted with technologies "not yet taken into consideration during the standard measuring cycle of the emissions of a car". This has given rise to speculation that photovoltaic panels might be widely adopted on autos in the near future.

It is also technically possible to use photovoltaic technology, (specifically thermophotovoltaic (TPV) technology) to provide motive power for a car. Fuel is used to heat an emitter. The infrared radiation generated is converted to electricity by a low band gap PV cell (e.g. GaSb). A prototype TPV hybrid car was even built. The "Viking 29" was the World’s first thermophotovoltaic (TPV) powered automobile, designed and built by the Vehicle Research Institute (VRI) at Western Washington University. Efficiency would need to be increased and cost decreased to make TPV competitive with fuel cells or internal combustion engines.

A Swiss project, called "Solartaxi,” has circumnavigated the world. This is the first time in history an electric vehicle (not self sufficient solar vehicle) has gone around the world, covering 50000 km in 18 months and crossing 40 countries. It is a road-worthy electric vehicle hauling a trailer with solar panels, carrying a 6 m² sized solar array. The Solartaxi has Zebra batteries, which permit a range of 400 km without recharging. The car can also run for 200 km without the trailer. Its maximum speed is 90 km/h. The car weighs 500 kg and the trailer weighs 200 kg. According to initiator and tour director Louis Palmer, the car in mass production could be produced for 16000 Euro. Solartaxi has toured the World from July 2007 till December 2008 to show that solutions to stop global warming are available and to encourage people in pursuing alternatives to fossil fuel. Palmer suggests the most economical location for solar panels for an electric car is on building rooftops though, likening it to putting money into a bank in one location and withdrawing it in another.

Solar Electrical Vehicles is adding convex solar cells to the roof of hybrid electric vehicles. An interesting variant of the electric vehicle is the triple hybrid vehicle—the PHEV that has solar panels as well to assist.  The 2010 Toyota Prius model has an option to mount solar panels on the roof. They power a ventilation system while parked to help provide cooling. There are many applications of photovoltaics in transport either for motive power or as auxiliary power units, particularly where fuel; maintenance, emissions or noise requirements preclude internal combustion engines or fuel cells. Due to the limited area available on each vehicle either speed or range or both are limited when used for motive power.

Some information obtained from Wikipedia.org.